Know your soil

The soil in our gardens is a mixture of
mineral particles derived from rock
weathering over millennia, air, water,
decomposed organic matter and living
organisms. Though all soils are based on the
same basic ingredients, they vary widely
because of differences in the way the
ingredients are combined.

Gardening Without Irrigation VII (Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water)

Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water

Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this statement seems likely to be true.

Actually, faster−growing crops use much less soil moisture than slower−growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required 1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water−wise gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially the subsoil.

Gardening Without Irrigation VI (Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying)

Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying

In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, while fertilizers, manures, and potent compostsmainly improve the topsoil. But the water−wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, where the soil stays damp through the summer.

Gardening Without Irrigation V (Windbreaks)

 Windbreaks

Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] (Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic.

Gardening Without Irrigation IV (Mulching)

Mulching

Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought−proof gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern California and western Oregon with disastrous results in both locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners who have already read glowing reports about mulching.

Gardening Without Irrigation III(Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring)

Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring

When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long−lasting passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to root
almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil.

Gardening Without Irrigation I I(Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture)

Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture

Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay.
There are also new synthetic, long−lasting soil amendments that hold and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter to increase a soil's water−holding capacity in the top few inches.

Gardening Without Irrigation I (Spotting a Likely Site)

Spotting a Likely Site

Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull−tasting fruit, there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep,open soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits are especially huge, usually there is bothdeep, loose soil and a higher than usual amount of fertility. Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka!

AN OVERVIEW OF TECHNIQUES FOR MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

AN OVERVIEW OF TECHNIQUES
FOR MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
Techniques for cultivating mushrooms, whatever the species, follow the same basic pattern.
Whereas two species may differ in temperature requirements, pH preferences or the substrate
on which they grow, the steps leading to fruiting are essentially the same. They can be summarized as follows:
1. Preparation and pouring of agar media into petri dishes.
2. Germination of spores and isolation of pure mushroom mycelium.
3. Expansion of mycelial mass on agar media.
4. Preparation of grain media.
5. Inoculation of grain media with pure mycelium grown on agar media.
6. Incubation of inoculated grain media (spawn).
7. A. Laying out grain spawn onto trays,
or
B. Inoculation of grain spawn into bulk substrates.
8. Casing—covering of substrate with a moist mixture of peat and other materials.
9. Initiation—lowering temperature, increasing humidity to 95%, increasing air circulation,
decreasing carbon dioxide and/or introducing light.
10. Cropping—maintaining temperature, lowering humidity to 85-92%, maintaining air circulation,carbon dioxide and/or light levels.
With many species moderate crops can be produced on cased grain cultures. Or,
the cultivator can go one step further and inoculate compost, straw or wood. In either case, the fruiting of mushrooms requires a high humidity environment that can be readily controlled. Without proper moisture, mushrooms don't grow.In the subsequent chapters standard methods for germinating spores are discussed, followed by Techniques for growing mycelium on agar, producing grain and/or bran "spawn", preparing composted and non-composted substrates, spawn running, casing and pinhead formation. With this last step the methods for fruiting various species diverge and techniques specific to each mushroom are individually outlined. A trouble-shooting guide helps cultivators identify and solve problems that are commonly encountered. This is followed by a thorough analysis of the contaminants and pests of mushroom culture and a chapter explaining the nature of mushroom genetics. In all, the book is a system of knowledge that integrates the various techniques developed by commercial growers worldwide and makes the cultivation of mushrooms at home a practical endeavor.

A Fukuoka Inspired Permaculture Garden composting

Conditions of composting

Conditions of composting

The important parameters of composting are temperature, pH, moisture content, and oxygentransfer, which is regulated by aeration, free airspace, and agitation. The main properties offeed materials include C/N ratio, ratio size, rigidity, and nutrient and lignin compost.



Carbon and nitrogen are the two most important elements in the composting process, as one or the other is normally a limiting factor [18]. Carbon serves primarily as an energy source for
microorganisms, while a small fraction of the carbon is incorporated in their cells. Nitrogen is critical for microbial population growth, as it is a constituent of protein which forms over 50% of dry bacterial cell mass. If nitrogen is limiting, microbial populations will remain small and it will take longer to decompose the available carbon. Excess nitrogen, beyond the microbial requirements, is often lost from the system as ammonia gas or other mobile nitrogen and can cause odours or other environmental problems. While the typically recommended C:N ratios for composting municipal solid waste (MSW) are 25:1 to 40:1 by weight, these ratios may
need to be altered to compensate for varying degrees of biological availability. Moisture management requires a balance between these two functions: microbial activity and oxygen supply [18]. Moisture is essential to the decomposition process, as most of the decom-position occurs in thin liquid films on the surfaces of particles. Excess moisture will fill many of the pores between particles with water, limiting oxygen transport. A minimum moisture content of 50 to 55% is usually recommended for high rate composting of MSW. The heat and airflow generated during composting evaporate significant amounts of water and tend to dry the material out. During the active composting phase, additional water usually needs to be added to
prevent premature drying and incomplete stabilization. MSW compost mixtures usually start at about 52% moisture and dry to about 37% moisture prior to final screening and marketing. Oxygen and temperature fluctuate in response to microbial activity, which consumes oxygen and generates heat [18]. Oxygen and temperature are linked by a common mechanism of control: aeration. Aeration both resupplies oxygen as it is depleted and carries away excess94 Compostable Polymer Materials heat. Inadequate oxygen levels lead to the growth of anaerobic microorganisms which can produce odorous compounds. Oxygen concentrations in the large pores must normally be at least
12–14% (ideally 16–17%) to allow adequate diffusion into large particles and water filled pores. Most MSW composting systems used a forced aeration system with blowers and distribution pipes to supply oxygen during the initial phases of active composting. Temperatures of 45 to 59oC provide the highest rate of decomposition, with temperatures above 59oC reducing the rate of decomposition due to a reduction in microbial diversity [18]. Since temperatures in excess of 55oC for several days are usually required for pathogen control,the ideal temperature operating range is relatively narrow. Composting systems attempt to control temperatures to a narrow range near 55 to 60oC in order to compromise between reaction rate, pathogen reduction, and odour generation. To maintain these temperature ranges, heat gains
from microbial activity need to be balanced against heat losses, which occur primarily through evaporation of moisture and heating the aeration rate. Temperature, like oxygen supply, is usually managed by an aeration system: the same air which supplies oxygen can carry away excess heat.

How to make compost

The Indore Method "reloaded"

The Indore Method


The Indore process consists of a systematic use of traditional
procedures. When Howard first put the system into practice, he used
only animal manures, brush, leaves, straw or hay, and sprinklings of
chalk or earth. The material was piled in alternating layers to make a
5-foot-high stack, or it was placed in a pit 2 or 3 feet deep. The original
procedure was to use a layer of brush as a base and to heap green or
dry vegetable material over it in a 6-inch layer, followed by a 2-inch
layer of manure and a sprinkling of soil. The order of layers was
repeated until the desired height of 5 feet was reached.